These events are included in my third novel, Blue Skies Tomorrow. Previous blog posts discussed the situation in the armed forces and at Port Chicago, the explosion, the work stoppage, and the mutiny trial. Today’s post looks at the change that resulted.
Public Outrage
The explosion and mutiny trial were heavily publicized, at the Navy’s request. While the purpose was to discourage further insubordination in the ranks, the publicity backfired, exposing the segregated and discriminatory practices in the Navy. A great outcry went up in the black community, but many whites were appalled as well.
Further Discord
The difficult and humiliating conditions for blacks in the armed forces caused more strife and violence. On July 31, 1944, 75 black members of the 1320th Army Engineers refused to work on an airfield on Oahu. They were convicted of mutiny on February 1, 1945. Christmas Eve and Day on Guam were marked by an ugly race riot that killed one black and one white Marine. Forty-three blacks were court-martialed and sentenced; no whites were arrested. And in March 1945, one thousand black Seabees at Port Hueneme, California engaged in a two-day hunger strike to protest discrimination.
Proponents of Change
The black sailor had a friend in the new Secretary of the Navy, James V. Forrestal, appointed by the president on May 19, 1944 after the death of Frank Knox on April 28. Forrestal found that Admiral Ernest King, Chief of Naval Operations and Commander-in-Chief of the United States Fleet, agreed that integration was right and necessary. In March 1945, Forrestal asked Lester Granger of the National Urban League to serve as his advisor. Forrestal liked Granger’s tactics. Rather than promoting fairness and rights, Granger stressed that desegregation increased security, production, and administrative efficiency - arguments that carried greater weight with commanders.
Ironically, on August 9, 1944, the same day the survivors of the Port Chicago Explosion refused to load ammunition, Forrestal informed the commanders of 25 fleet auxiliary ships that they would be assigned black sailors to be fully integrated on their crews. In this experimental change, the black sailors were found to be accepted and efficient crewmembers. As a result, all auxiliary ships were fully integrated on March 6, 1945.
In January 1945, a pamphlet went out to naval officers, encouraging ratings and promotions be made for blacks on the same basis as for whites. The pamphlet also warned against the use or racial epithets.
In response to the Port Chicago incident, on February 21, 1945, the Navy limited blacks working at ammunition depots to no more than 30 percent of the work force. An argument that proved effective was that dispersing blacks prevented collective action like riots and strikes.
Specialist training schools had quietly been integrating since 1943, simply due to the inefficiency of maintaining separate schools. In June 1945, all Navy training camps were desegregated and in July 1945, the Navy opened submarine and aviation pilot training to blacks as well.
Strides were made within the Navy for black women as well. In October 1944, the WAVEs (Women Accepted for Volunteer Emergency Service) opened recruitment for black women, and in March 1945, the Navy Nurse Corps also opened to blacks.
Results
Progress in the Navy was significant but slow. By the end of the war, 5.3 percent of naval personnel were black, double the prewar percentage but still less than half the percentage of the population. Only 60 black officers served in the Navy, up from zero before the war. Seventy black women served as WAVEs, and four black women served in the Navy Nurse Corps. Before the war, blacks were only allowed to serve as steward’s mates. By the end of the war, blacks held 67 different ratings but 40 percent still served as steward’s mates.
Work continued in the Navy after the war. On February 27, 1946, without fanfare, the Bureau of Naval Personnel issued Circular Letter 48-46 which prohibited all segregation in assignments, ratings, ranks, ships, facilities, and housing. Not until 1948 were the rest of the armed forces completely integrated. While the Navy had been the most segregated service before the war, it became the first integrated service branch. The events surrounding the Port Chicago Explosion played a significant role in these landmark changes.
Sources:
MacGregor, Morris J. Jr. Integration of the Armed Forces 1940-1965. Washington DC: Center of Military History, United States Army, 1985. On U.S. Army Center of Military History website. Accessed 2 October 2011. http://www.history.army.mil/books/integration/IAF-FM.htm
Allen, Robert L. The Port Chicago Mutiny. Berkeley CA: Heyday Books, 2006.
